The early period
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Also known as: Muscat and Oman, Salṭanat ʿUmān, Sultanate of Oman
Written by
J.E. Peterson,
Jill Ann Crystal•All
Fact-checked by
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: •Article History
Three principal themes highlight the history of Oman: the tribal nature of its society, the traditional Ibāḍī imamate form of government, and its maritime tradition. Archaeological evidence of civilization in Oman dates to about the 3rd millennium bce, but Persian colonization prior to the 1st century ce established the falaj irrigation system, which has since sustained Omani agriculture and civilization.
See article: flag of Oman
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- Head Of State And Government:
- Sultan: Haitham bin Tariq Al Said
- Capital:
- Muscat2
- Population:
- (2024 est.) 5,274,000
- Currency Exchange Rate:
- 1 USD equals 0.385 Omani rial
- Form Of Government:
- monarchy with two advisory bodies (State Council [851]; Consultative Council [86])
Recent News
Aug. 7, 2024, 5:14 AM ET (MarketWatch)
The history of the Dhofar region followed a separate path. Ancient South Arabian kingdoms controlled the production of frankincense there from the 1st century ce. The province thus remained culturally and politically linked to South Arabia until it was absorbed into the Āl Bū Saʿīd state in the 19th century.
The Omani tribal system
The origins of the Omani tribal system can be traced to the immigration of Arab groups from South Arabia into the Jaʿlān region during the 2nd century ce. These groups subsequently moved northward into the Persian-controlled area of Māzūn in Oman, where they confronted other tribes from the northwest. Arab dominance over the country began with the introduction of Islam in the 7th century.
The Ibāḍī imamate
The Ibāḍī imamate, which arrived in the mid-8th century, unified Oman politically. The country’s mountains and geographic isolation provided a refuge for the Ibāḍīs (Ibāḍiyyah), who proceeded to convert the leading tribal clans to their sect. The new Ibāḍī state was headed by an elected imam who served as both temporal and religious leader of the community. The selection of a new imam was determined by an agreement made among the religious leaders and the heads of the major groups, particularly the leaders of the two major tribal confederations that came to be known as the Ghāfirīs and the Hināwīs.
A recurring pattern began to develop during the decline of the First Imamate, which reached its heyday in the 9th century. Elected imams tended to give way to hereditary dynasties, which then collapsed as a result of family disputes and the resurgence of Ibāḍī ideals.
The maritime tradition
Maritime trade also contributed to dynastic decline. Virtually cut off from the rest of the Arabian Peninsula by vast deserts, Omani sailors traveled the waters of the Indian Ocean and ranged as far as China by the 15th century. This maritime tendency was strongest when tribal dynasties moved their capitals from the Ibāḍī interior to the coast and focused their attention on acquiring territory elsewhere in the Gulf of Oman, along the Arabian Sea, and on the coast of East Africa.
Oman since c. 1500
Portuguese and Persian invasions
En route to India, the Portuguese sacked Muscat in 1507 and soon controlled the entire coast. More than a century later the Yaʿrubid dynasty drove the Portuguese from the Omani coast, recapturing Muscat in 1650 and then occupying Portuguese settlements in the Persian Gulf and East African coastal regions. Their empire eventually crumbled in a civil war over the succession of the imam in the early 18th century, enabling the Persian ruler Nādir Shāh to invade the country in 1737.
